Conventions
European Convention on Human Rights
Statutory Instruments
Communications Act 2003
Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Malicious Communications Act 1988
Online Safety Act 2023
Public Order Act 1986
The Online Safety Super-Complaints (Eligibility and Procedural Matters) Regulations 2025
Case Law
Anns and Others v Merton London Borough [1978] A.C. 728
Ayinde v LB Haringey and Al Haroun v Qatar National Bank [2025] EWHC 1383
Bandla v Solicitors Regulation Authority [2025] EWHC 1167 (Admin)
Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee [1957] 1 WLR 582
Bolitho v. City and Hackney Health Authority [1998] AC 232
Caparo Industries PLC v Dickman [1990] 2 AC 605
Donoghue v Stevenson 1932 SC (HL) 31
HOME OFFICE APPELLANTS AND DORSET YACHT CO. LTD. [1970] A.C. 1004, 1027
John Munroe (Acrylics) Ltd v London Fire and Civil Defence Authority and others [1997]
Mata v Avianca Inc Case No. 22-cv-1461 (PKC), 2o23 WL 4114965 (SDNY 22 June 2023)
McLoughlin v O’Brian [1983] 1 AC 410
Michael John Paley (2018) Preston Crown Court (unreported)
Olsen v Finansiel Stabilitet A/S [2025] EWHC 42 (KB)
Osman v United Kingdom (1998) 29 EHRR 245
Penney, Palmer and Canon v East Kent Health Authority [2000] Lloyds Rep Med 41
R v McGregor [Worcester Magistrates Court 2023 (unreported)
Rex v BLC [2024] EWCA Crim 1186
SW Harber v Commissions for His Majesty’s Revenue and Customs [2023] UKFTT 1007 (TC)
Valu v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (No 2) [2025] FedCFamC2G 95
Wikeley v Kea Investments Ltd [2024] NZCA 609
Yuen Kun Yeu and Others v Attorney-General [1988] LRC (Comm) 763
Zhang v Chen [2024] BCSC 285
Books
Kurzeil R., The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence, (Published Viking Press 1999)
Lucy W., Philosophy of Private Law (Published by Oxford University Press 2007)
Journals
Anshita G. and others, ‘Legal and regulatory issues related to AI in healthcare’ (2025) Ethics and Transparency at the Intersection (Academic Press 2025) 259-283 < https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/edited-volume/pii/B9780443247880000108#bib24> Accessed 11 December 2025
Kolkman D., ‘The (in)credibility of algorithmic models to non-experts’ (2022) Information, Communication and Society Vol 25 93-109 < https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2020.1761860#abstract>
Prakash, S. and others. ‘Ethical Conundrums in the Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Healthcare—A Scoping Review of Reviews.’ (2022). Journal of Personalized Medicine Vol 12 1914 https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12111914 Accessed 11 December 2025
Samanta A. and Samanta J., ‘Legal standard of care: a shift from the traditional Bolam test’ (Clinical Medicine Vol 3 No 5 September 2003) < https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/instance/4953641/pdf/443.pdf> Accessed 13 December 2025
Reports
Committee of Public Accounts, Use of AI in Government (Eighteenth Report of Session 2024–25 HC 356) < https://committees.parliament.uk/publications/47199/documents/244683/default/> Accessed 13 December 2025
Department for Science, Innovation & Technology, AI Opportunities Plan, (DSIT, 13 January 2025) < https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-opportunities-action-plan/ai-opportunities-action-plan> Accessed 12 December 2025
Department for Science, Innovation & Technology, Delivering AI Growth Zones (DSIT, 13 November 2025) < https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/delivering-ai-growth-zones/delivering-ai-growth-zones#introduction> Accessed 12 December 2025
Government Digital Service, Artificial Intelligence Playbook for the UK Government, (DSIT February 2025) https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/67aca2f7e400ae62338324bd/AI_Playbook_for_the_UK_Government__12_02_.pdf Accessed 13 December 2025
Law Commission, Abusive and Offensive Online Communications: A Scoping Report (Law Com No 381, 2018)
Law Commission, AI and the Law: A discussion paper, (LC 2025) < https://cdn.websitebuilder.service.justice.gov.uk/uploads/sites/54/2025/07/AI-paper-PDF.pdf> Accessed 11 December 2025
Law Commission, Intimate Images Abuse: A Final Report (Law Com No 407) 2.12 < https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20250109101427mp_/https://cloud-platform-e218f50a4812967ba1215eaecede923f.s3.amazonaws.com/uploads/sites/30/2022/07/Intimate-image-abuse-final-report.pdf
Law Commission, Malicious Communications Offences: Final Report (HC 547 Law Com No 399)
Lighthill J., Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey, (Science Research Council, 1973)
National Audit Office, ‘Use of Artificial Intelligence in Government’, (Department for Science, Innovation & Technology 15 Macrh 2025 HC 612)
Websites and blogs
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Bolton W., ‘Cyber flasher jailed for 66 weeks in legal first’ (The Telegraph, 19 March 2024) https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/03/19/nicholas-hawkes-photos-first-convicted-cyber-flashing/ 19 March 2024 Accessed 1 December 2025
Campbell C. Chow A.R., Perrigo B. ‘The Architects of AI are TIME’s 2025 Person of the Year’ (Time Magazine, 11 December 2025) https://time.com/7339685/person-of-the-year-2025-ai-architects/ Accessed 13 December 2025
Crown Prosecution Service, ‘Prison Sentence in cyberflashing case’ (CPS 19 March 2024) https://www.cps.gov.uk/east-england/news/prison-sentence-first-cyberflashing-case Accessed 1 December 2025
Danaham J., ‘The Case for outsourcing morality to AI’, (Wired, 2 February 2023) < https://www.wired.com/story/philosophy-artificial-intelligence-responsibility-gap/> Accessed 11 December 2025
Department for Science, Innovation and Technology and The Rt Hon Michelle Donelan, ‘Cyberflashing, epilepsy-trolling and fake news to put online abusers behind bars from today’ (DSIT 31 January 2024) https://www.gov.uk/government/news/cyberflashing-epilepsy-trolling-and-fake-news-to-put-online-abusers-behind-bars-from-today Accessed 29 November 2025
Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, ‘Online Safety Act: an explainer’, (DSIT 24 April 2025) https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/online-safety-act-explainer/online-safety-act-explainer#types-of-content-the-act-tackles Accessed 29 November 2025
Dhajni K., ‘Deloitte to pay money back to Albanese government after using AI in $440,000 report’ (The Guardian, 6 October 2025) < https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2025/oct/06/deloitte-to-pay-money-back-to-albanese-government-after-using-ai-in-440000-report> Accessed 14 December 2025
Duball J., ‘US President Trump signs state AI executive order, legal questions remain’ (International Association of Privacy Professionals, 12 December 2025) < https://iapp.org/news/a/as-us-president-trump-signs-state-ai-executive-order-legal-questions-remain> Accessed 13 December 2025
Dyson J., ‘ “Embarrassing”: AI attendance reports suspended days after launch’ (Schools Week, 17 November 2025) < https://schoolsweek.co.uk/embarrassing-ai-attendance-reports-suspended-days-after-launch/> Access 13 December 2025
End Violence Against Women, ‘The Ripple Effect: COVID-19 and the Epidemic of Online Abuse’ 5, 40 https://www.endviolenceagainstwomen.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/Glitch-and-EVAW-The-Ripple-Effect-Online-abuse-during-COVID-19-Sept-2020.pdf Accessed 5 December
Gartner Inc., ‘Gartner Predicts Over 40% of Agentic AI Projects Will Be Cancelled by End of 2027’ (Gartner INC, 25 June 2025) < https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2025-06-25-gartner-predicts-over-40-percent-of-agentic-ai-projects-will-be-canceled-by-end-of-2027> Accessed 13 December 2025
Gartner Inc., ‘Gartner Predicts Over 40% of Agentic AI Projects Will Be Cancelled by End of 2027’ (Gartner INC, 25 June 2025) < https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2025-06-25-gartner-predicts-over-40-percent-of-agentic-ai-projects-will-be-canceled-by-end-of-2027> Accessed 13 December 2025
Gartner Inc., ‘Hype Cycle for Artificial Intelligence,2025’, (Gartner Inc., 8 July 2025) < https://www.pasqal.com/resources/new-gartner-hype-cycle-for-ai-report-2025/> Accessed 13 December 2025
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Hans Holbein the Younger, ‘Portrait of Anne of Cleves (1515-1557), Queen of England, fourth wife of Henry VIII’ 1539 (Louvre INV 1348) < https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010062615> Accessed 29 November 2025
Hazan E. and others., ‘A new future of work: The race to deploy AI and raise skills in Europe and Beyond’, (McKinsey Global Institute, 21 May 2024) < https://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/our-research/a-new-future-of-work-the-race-to-deploy-ai-and-raise-skills-in-europe-and-beyond#/> Accessed 13 December 2025
Hazan E., ‘Human capital for the age of generative AI’, (McKinsey Global Institute, 30 May 2024) < https://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/media-center/human-capital-for-the-age-of-generative-ai) Accessed 13 December 2025; Rothman J., ‘Is AI actually a bubble?’ (The New Yorker, 12 December 2025) < https://www.newyorker.com/culture/open-questions/is-ai-actually-a-bubble?_sp=783ad5d8-5b6e-43c6-bc25-e56543bd55b4.1765637967785> Accessed 13 December 2025
Higson-Bliss L., ‘Legislative Comment: The Online Safety Act 2023 and the sending of threatening or false communications Statute Law Review, Vol 46 2 (SLR August 2025) https://academic.oup.com/slr/article/46/2/hmaf021/8203212 Accessed 30 Nov
Information Commissioner’s Office, ‘How do we ensure individual rights in our AI systems?’ (ICO 15 March 2023) https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/uk-gdpr-guidance-and-resources/artificial-intelligence/guidance-on-ai-and-data-protection/ Accessed 11 December 2025
Kendall L., ‘Tech Firms to prevent unwanted nudes under tougher laws to protect women and girls online’ (DSIT 29 September 2025) https://www.gov.uk/government/news/tech-firms-to-prevent-unwanted-nudes-under-tougher-laws-to-protect-women-and-girls-online Accessed 1 December 2025
Khandabattu H., ‘The 2025 Hype Cycle for Artificial Intelligence Goes Beyond GenAI’ (Gartner Inc., 8 July 2025) <https://www.gartner.com/en/articles/hype-cycle-for-artificial-intelligence> Accessed 11 December 2025
Kolkman D., ‘F**k the algorithm”?: What the world can learn from the UK’s A-level grading fiasco’ (LSE 26 August 2020) https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2020/08/26/fk-the-algorithm-what-the-world-can-learn-from-the-uks-a-level-grading-fiasco/ Accessed 14 December 2025
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Maanen G. and Kolkman D., ‘AI decision making doesn’t need to be explainable, but it should be responsive’ (LSE 6 January 2025) < https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/impactofsocialsciences/2025/01/06/ai-decision-making-doesnt-need-to-be-explainable-but-it-should-be-responsive/> Accessed 14 December 2025;
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